Plasticity induced by non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation: A position paper

Several techniques and protocols of non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation (NIBS), including transcranial magnetic and electrical stimuli, have been developed in the past decades. Non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation may modulate cortical excitability outlasting the period of non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation itself from several minutes to more than one hour. Quite a few lines of evidence, including pharmacological, physiological and behavioral studies in humans and animals, suggest that the effects of non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation are produced through effects on synaptic plasticity. However, there is still a need for more direct and conclusive evidence. The fragility and variability of the effects are the major challenges that non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation currently faces. A variety of factors, including biological variation, measurement reproducibility and the neuronal state of the stimulated area, which can be affected by factors such as past and present physical activity, may influence the response to non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation. Work is ongoing to test whether the reliability and consistency of non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation can be improved by controlling or monitoring neuronal state and by optimizing the protocol and timing of stimulation

Short-term effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on sleep bruxism:a pilot study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on patients with sleep bruxism (SB). Twelve patients with SB were included in an open, single-intervention pilot study. rTMS at 1 Hz and an intensity of 80% of the active motor threshold was applied to the ‘hot spot' of the masseter muscle representation at the primary motor cortex bilaterally for 20 min per side each day for 5 consecutive days. The jaw-closing muscle electromyographic (EMG) activity during sleep was recorded with a portable EMG recorder at baseline, during rTMS treatment and at follow-up for 5 days. In addition, patients scored their jaw-closing muscle soreness on a 0–10 numerical rating scale (NRS). Data were analysed with analysis of variance. The intensity of the EMG activity was suppressed during and after rTMS compared to the baseline (P = 0.04; P = 0.02, respectively). The NRS score of soreness decreased significantly during and after rTMS compared with baseline (P < 0.01). These findings indicated a significant inhibition of jaw-closing muscle activity during sleep along with a decrease of muscle soreness. This pilot study raises the possibility of therapeutic benefits from rTMS in patients with bruxism and calls for further and more controlled studies

Differential modulation of corticospinal excitability by different current densities of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation.

BACKGROUND: Novel non-invasive brain stimulation techniques such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) have been developed in recent years. TDCS-induced corticospinal excitability changes depend on two important factors current intensity and stimulation duration. Despite clinical success with existing tDCS parameters, optimal protocols are still not entirely set. OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS: The current study aimed to investigate the effects of four different anodal tDCS (a-tDCS) current densities on corticospinal excitability. METHODS: Four current intensities of 0.3, 0.7, 1.4 and 2 mA resulting in current densities (CDs) of 0.013, 0.029, 0.058 and 0.083 mA/cm(2) were applied on twelve right-handed (mean age 34.5±10.32 yrs) healthy individuals in different sessions at least 48 hours apart. a-tDCS was applied continuously for 10 minute, with constant active and reference electrode sizes of 24 and 35 cm(2) respectively. The corticospinal excitability of the extensor carpi radialis muscle (ECR) was measured before and immediately after the intervention and at 10, 20 and 30 minutes thereafter. RESULTS: Post hoc comparisons showed significant differences in corticospinal excitability changes for CDs of 0.013 mA/cm(2) and 0.029 mA/cm(2) (P = 0.003). There were no significant differences between excitability changes for the 0.013 mA/cm(2) and 0.058 mA/cm(2) (P = 0.080) or 0.013 mA/cm(2) and 0.083 mA/cm(2) (P = 0.484) conditions. CONCLUSION: This study found that a-tDCS with a current density of 0.013 mA/cm(2) induces significantly larger corticospinal excitability changes than CDs of 0.029 mA/cm(2). The implication is that might help to avoid applying unwanted amount of current to the cortical areas

Organisation of common inputs to motoneuron pools of human masticatory muscles

Copyright © 2006 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.ObjectiveTo determine the pattern of organization of common inputs to the motoneuron pools of individual muscles in the masticatory system.MethodsSix subjects bit on a rubber-coated wooden splint placed between the upper and lower incisor teeth. We recorded the surface electromyogram (EMG) of co-contracting masseter, temporalis and digastric muscles bilaterally during isometric jaw closing at 5%, 10%, 20% and 40% of maximal voluntary masseter EMG.ResultsThe cross-correlograms of the EMGs of homologous muscle pairs indicate that there are common synaptic inputs to the motoneuron pools of the left and right masseter, and left and right digastric muscles, but not to left and right temporalis. The amplitude of the central peak in masseter and digastric correlograms increased with bite force. When the activity of ipsilateral muscle pairs was cross-correlated, central peaks were prominent for masseter-digastric and masseter-temporalis muscle pairs, and the peak amplitudes increased significantly with bite force. In contrast, no significant central peak was observed for temporalis-digastric muscle pairs at any level of voluntary biting.ConclusionsWe conclude that there is synchronous modulation of input bilaterally to the masseter muscles and to the digastric muscles but not to the temporalis muscles. There is synchronous modulation of input to ipsilateral masseter-digastric and masseter-temporalis muscle pairs but not to temporalis and digastric muscles.SignificanceThe extent of common input to motoneuron pools of muscles acting around a common joint varies for different muscle pairs, and is not simply a function of whether the muscles of the pair are synergists or antagonists.Shapour Jaberzadeh, Timothy S. Miles and Michael A. Nordstro

Cathodal transcranial direct-current stimulation for treatment of drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy: A pilot randomized controlled trial.

Objective: To investigate the effect of cathodal transcranial direct-current stimulation (c-tDCS) on seizure frequency in patients with drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Method: Twenty-nine patients with drug-resistant TLE participated in this study. They were randomized to experimental or sham group. Twenty participants (experimental group) received within-session repeated c-tDCS intervention over the affected temporal lobe, and nine (sham group) received sham tDCS. Paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation was used to assess short interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) in primary motor cortex ipsilateral to the affected temporal lobe. SICI was measured from motor evoked potentials recorded from the contralateral first dorsal interosseous muscle. Adverse effects were monitored during and after each intervention in both groups. A seizure diary was given to each participant to complete for 4 weeks following the tDCS intervention. The mean response ratio was calculated from their seizure rates before and after the tDCS intervention. Results: The experimental group showed a significant increase in SICI compared to the sham group (F = 10.3, p = 0.005). None of the participants reported side effects of moderate or severe degree. The mean response ratio in seizure frequency was -42.14% (standard deviation [SD] 35.93) for the experimental group and -16.98% (SD 52.41) for the sham group. Significance: Results from this pilot study suggest that tDCS may be a safe and efficacious nonpharmacologic intervention for patients with drug-resistant TLE. Further evaluation in larger double-blind randomized controlled trials is warranted

Does anodal transcranial direct current stimulation modulate sensory perception and pain? A meta-analysis study. Clin Neurophysiol

h i g h l i g h t s Anodal tDCS (a-tDCS) of the primary motor cortex increases sensory and pain threshold in healthy individuals. a-tDCS of the primary sensory cortex increases pain threshold significantly. a-tDCS of both primary motor cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex decreases pain level in patients with chronic pain. a b s t r a c t Objective: The primary aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the effects of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (a-tDCS) on sensory (STh) and pain thresholds (PTh) in healthy individuals and pain levels (PL) in patients with chronic pain. Methods: Electronic databases were searched for a-tDCS studies. Methodological quality was examined using the PEDro and Downs and Black (D&amp;B) assessment tools. Results: a-tDCS of the primary motor cortex (M1) increases both STh (P &lt; 0.005, with the effect size of 22.19%) and PTh (P &lt; 0.001, effect size of 19.28%). In addition, STh was increased by a-tDCS of the primary sensory cortex (S1) (P &lt; 0.05 with an effect size of 4.34). Likewise, PL decreased significantly in the patient group following application of a-tDCS to both the M1 and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). The average decrease in visual analogue score was 14.9% and 19.3% after applying a-tDCS on the M1 and DLPFC. Moreover, meta-analysis showed that in all subgroups (except a-tDCS of S1) active a-tDCS and sham stimulation produced significant differences. Conclusions: This review provides evidence for the effectiveness of a-tDCS in increasing STh/PTh in healthy group and decreasing PL in patients. However, due to small sample sizes in the included studies, our results should be interpreted cautiously. Given the level of blinding did not considered in inclusion criteria, the result of current study should be interpreted with caution. Significance: Site of stimulation should have a differential effect over pain relief

Focal transcranial magnetic stimulation of motor cortex evokes bilateral and symmetrical silent periods in human masseter muscles

Copyright © 2007 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.ObjectiveTo determine whether a single hemisphere exerts distinct inhibitory influences over masseter muscles on each side, and to compare features of the masseter cortical silent period (CSP) evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) with previous reports from limb and other cranial muscles.MethodsFocal TMS was applied over the motor cortex jaw area in 14 normal subjects. In one experiment, TMS intensity was constant (1.1 or 1.3x active motor threshold, T) and masseter muscle activation varied from 10% to 100% of maximal. In another experiment, muscle activation was constant (20% maximal) and TMS intensity varied from 0.7 to 1.3T.ResultsIn all subjects, TMS evoked a silent period of similar duration in masseter muscles on both sides. Masseter CSP duration increased at higher TMS intensities, but was not affected by muscle activation level or the size of the excitatory response evoked by TMS. Weak TMS produced a bilateral CSP without short-latency excitation. The masseter CSP was short ( approximately 100ms at 1.3T), yet this was not due to maintenance of excitatory drive from the unstimulated hemisphere, as the masseter CSP was not prolonged with dual-hemisphere TMS.ConclusionsIntracortical inhibitory circuits activated by TMS have a relatively weak effect on corticotrigeminal neurons supplying masseter, and effects are equivalent for corticobulbar efferents directed to contralateral and ipsilateral masseter motoneuron pools.SignificanceTrigeminally innervated masseter muscles exhibit weak, bilaterally symmetric inhibition following focal TMS. This method can be used to investigate abnormalities of intracortical inhibition in movement disorders or focal lesions affecting the masticatory muscles in humans.Shapour Jaberzadeh, Shigemitsu Sakuma, Maryam Zoghi, Timothy S. Miles and Michael A. Nordstromhttp://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/601528/description#descriptio

Motor training decreases finger tremor and movement response time in a visuomotor tracking task

The authors sought to determine whether repeated practice of a skilled motor task reduced the tremor arising from pulsatile control that occurs during and after training. Participants flexed and extended their index finger at the metacarpophalangeal joint to track a screen cursor during skill training, in 6 training runs, each of 3-min duration. Nonskill training comprised voluntary flexion and extension movements. The authors measured performance by the average tracking error in a standard 10-s target pattern embedded in the training runs. Cross-correlation of the motor performance and the target pattern revealed that the improved ability to match the shape of the target pattern accounted for 63% of the improved motor performance and that the decreased time to respond to changes in the target line accounted for 10% of the improvement. Skill, but not nonskill training, reduced tremor after 3 min of training during the training movements and during movements 10 and 25 min afterwards. The authors observed no changes in resting tremor after either training protocol. Although training reduced the tremor, this reduction in itself did not significantly improve tracking performance. The authors conclude that visuomotor skill training produces a general reduction in finger tremor (pulsatile control) during voluntary movements that extends beyond the period of training.Dartnall, TJ; Jaberzadeh, S; Miles, TS; and Nordstrom, MA.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1907347

Intracortical inhibition in the human trigeminal motor system

Copyright © 2007 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.ObjectiveTo investigate the presence and features of short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) in the human trigeminal motor system.MethodsSurface electromyogram (EMG) was recorded from left and right digastric muscles in 7 subjects, along with additional experiments with intramuscular EMG in 2 subjects. Focal transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was used to activate the motor cortex of one hemisphere and elicit motor evoked potentials (MEPs) in digastric muscles on each side, at rest and while subjects activated the muscles at 10% maximal EMG. Paired or single TMS pulses were delivered in blocks of trials, while conditioning TMS intensity and interstimulus interval (ISI) were varied.ResultsAt rest, paired TMS (3-ms ISI) with conditioning intensities 0.8-0.9x active motor threshold (TA) reduced the digastric MEP amplitude to a similar extent bilaterally. Conditioning at 0.5-0.7TA did not significantly reduce the MEP. MEP amplitude was reduced to a similar extent in both digastric muscles by ISIs between 1 and 4 ms (0.8TA). Voluntary bilateral activation of digastric muscles reduced the effectiveness of conditioning TMS compared to the resting state, with no differences between sides. The similarity of the responses in both digastric muscles was not due to EMG cross-talk (estimated to be approximately 10% in surface records and approximately 2% in intramuscular records), as the intramuscular records showed the same pattern as the surface records.ConclusionsThe effects of paired-pulse TMS on digastric are similar to those reported for contralateral hand muscles, and are consistent with activation of SICI circuits in M1 by conditioning TMS. Our evidence further suggests that the corticomotor representations of left and right digastric muscles in M1 of a single hemisphere receive analogous inhibitory modulation from SICI circuits.SignificanceSICI has been demonstrated in the face area of motor cortex controlling the trigeminal motor system in normal subjects. This method can be used to investigate abnormalities of SICI in movement disorders affecting the masticatory muscles in humans.Shapour Jaberzadeh, Sophie L. Pearce, Timothy S. Miles, Kemal S. Türker and Michael A. Nordstromhttp://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/601528/description#descriptio